Relations between states Essay Example for Free

Relations between states Essay Winston Churchill famously lamented, â€Å"It may be that we shall by a process of sublime irony have reached a stage in this story where safety will be the sturdy child of terror, and survival the twin brother of annihilation. † In the wake of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a new nuclear age was ushered in with mushroom clouds and unimaginable destruction. Suddenly, humankind had invented a weapon powerful enough—if used in sufficient quantity—to destroy the Earth’s capacity to sustain human life. For the world, the menace of nuclear winter was terrifying. To social scientists, it was equally frightening, but also presented a new paradigm of international relations. Technology has evolved throughout history, but never before had an advancement in weapons fundamentally shifted anything more than battlefield tactics. Nuclear weapons, on the other hand, brought a tremendous shift in the relations between states. Suddenly, the stakes of war were different; suddenly, war between two states had implications for the planet that wars had never produced before. John Mueller, in his article â€Å"The Irrelevance of Nuclear Weapons,† disputes the idea that nuclear weapons actually fundamentally changed the landscape of international relations. Instead, Mueller argues, the horrors of World Wars I and II already escalated the stakes of warfare to a tipping point level, where the costs were so high that warfare was naturally deterred between stable, developed states. Specifically, Mueller cites the memory of World War II, superpower contentment with the postwar status quo, Soviet ideology, and a fear of escalation as the primary four reasons that nuclear weapons did not fundamentally change the nature of war deterrence. Mueller’s argument, while logically sound, has not held up to the tests of empiricism. Mueller’s first argument—that nuclear deterrence had little impact because all nations were already so horrified by the devastation wrought by World War II that they would never repeat its destruction—is weak. Certainly, World War II is the most tragic and destructive event of the twentieth century and probably is unrivalled in human history for its breadth of brutality and human loss of life. Yet, as Mueller admits, World War I was enough to convince the world of the maxim â€Å"never again,† only to have a similar conflict erupt twenty years after the guns of World War I were silenced. On top of the similarity between World War I and World War II, the wake of World War II was not free from conflict. For the United States, even, the Korean conflict broke out less than a decade after World War II and was quickly followed by Vietnam. Both conflicts brought about staggering casualties. Clearly, World War II was worse, but it was not enough of a deterrent to stop many wars in its aftermath. In other words, Mueller’s argument that nuclear deterrence did not fundamentally shift the landscape because World War II’s horrors took care of doing so, does not stand up to the test of facts; conflicts erupted regardless. More importantly, however, nuclear war would be substantially different than World War II. World War II was immensely devastating because it was fought by enormous armies of many different countries for several years. Nuclear war could not be more different; it could be carried out with little more than a small air force, the right bombs, and could last days. Once the Soviet Union and the United States acquired nuclear weapons, it was a different ballgame. Entire cities could be wiped off the map in a second. For policymakers, that changed the incentive structures. Undertaking a war with the Soviet Union prior to the nuclear age would have enlisted the entire nation’s resources, citizens, and finances. On the other hand, when there was an asymmetry of power—between 1945 and 1949 specifically—the American government could have eliminated a Soviet city from existence with little more than a single jet and a small aircrew. That skewed the playing field heavily in the favor of the United States. But, that changed when the Soviets acquired nuclear capability. Suddenly, both countries faced the same incentives and the same disincentives to go to war; each was assured that a nuclear attack by one would prompt a retaliation—perhaps a disproportionate one—from the other. This created a paradox—without having to deploy armies or finance massive military campaigns, war was much closer; it simply took an order from Washington or Moscow. Yet, the stakes were also higher. With nuclear weapons in play, escalation was simultaneously much closer and much less desirable. The fact that conventional conflicts between states raged on in the post-war era but nuclear conflict has never arisen speaks volumes about the unique power of a nuclear deterrent. Thus, Mueller’s argument about the deterrence of conventional conflict does not hold up to analytical scrutiny given history’s contradiction. Moreover, Mueller’s argument that the superpowers were already unlikely to go to war (with or without nuclear weapons) because they were content with the status quo is equally vacuous. Certainly, the superpowers never engaged directly in combat. But nuclear weapon deterrent theory posits that nuclear weapons impedes escalation to the highest levels because the costs associated are simply unbearable for all involved parties. In other words, if Mueller is correct that the post-war status quo already acted as a sufficient deterrent, then the superpowers should have been peaceful throughout the Cold War. Far from it, they instead engaged in many proxy wars—wars specifically designed to allow low-level conflict as each vied for further control of the globe, but simultaneously to ensure that the conflict would never rage out of control and risk bringing nuclear weapons to the table. Cold War flare ups between communist and capitalist powers prove Mueller’s theory to be false; the post-war status quo was repeatedly altered as the Soviets and Americans each sought to expand their power and gain a strategic advantage over their enemy, without inviting the use of nuclear weapons precisely because of nuclear deterrence. Mueller’s third argument—that Soviet ideology was a sufficient deterrent that is often mis-attributed to the myth of nuclear deterrence—is simply a red herring. Mueller makes a strong case, certainly, but it does not address the fundamentals of nuclear deterrence theory. Simply because the Soviets in particular may have been less likely to engage in a full-out war with another hegemonic power, that does not negate the validity of nuclear deterrence theory. Simply stated, nuclear deterrence theory is an idea that applies to all states, and invoking the Soviet case to disprove the entirety of the rule is a weak attack that falls flat. Mueller’s fourth argument—that a fear of escalation was already in place and did not need nuclear weapons to operate—is equally flawed. Fear of escalation is precisely the heart of nuclear deterrence theory: nuclear weapons prevent war because provoking a nuclear power is likely to yield unspeakable horrors. Mueller suggests that the threat of war alone is horrific enough to produce a similar deterrent and that as a result, nuclear weapons did little to change deterrence dynamics. But empirical research disagrees. According to Robert Rauchhaus of the University of California, Santa Barbara, â€Å"When a nuclear asymmetry exists between two states, there is a greater chance of militarized disputes and war. In contrast, when there is symmetry and both states possess nuclear weapons, then the odds of war precipitously drop. † Rauchhaus’s research, which draws upon many decades of empirical research, quantitatively validates the importance of nuclear weapons. Even though, as Rauchhaus points out, nuclear weapons are not universally positive in their deterrent effects (asymmetrical nuclear capabilities can promote rather than deter war, for example), they inevitably have an impact (and a substantial one at that) on international affairs. This study flies in the face of Mueller’s claim that nuclear weapons are simply tangential deterrents running parallel to a larger deterrent growing out of the desire to avoid large wars. On all four fronts, Mueller’s claims are flimsy. His article is nonetheless important because it challenges the premises of deterrent theory and suggests an alternative viewpoint. In the end, however, it seems that nuclear weapons do make a difference: conventional wars continue at regular intervals, but no nuclear weapon has been dropped in warfare since the horrors of Nagasaki and Hiroshima jolted the world into a stunned realization that nuclear warfare was simply unacceptable and needed to be avoided at all costs.

Athletes and Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

   Abstract:   Since the beginning of sports competition, athletes have always looked for some kind of an edge over their competitors.   They will do whatever it takes to be one of the elite and that includes injecting supplements into their bodies to make them bigger, stronger, and faster.   Steroid use is probably one of the most common drug misuses in sports competition.   Athletes found that with anabolic steroids one could become a better athlete twice as fast.   Not until 1975 was the drug first banned from Olympic competition because of the health risks it produced.   Shortly thereafter, the rest of the sports world did not allow anabolic steroids as well.   With the use of steroids no longer permitted athletes began to look for other alternatives.   On the rise is two substances called creatine and androstenedione, both of which are sold over the counter. These two performance enhancers have only had minimal testing done on them, excluding the l ong-term effects, simply because they haven't been around long enough.   Creatine and androstenedione have been said to produce results like steroids without the side effects.   The truth is they do produce side effects and irregular muscle growth. By banning the use of performance enhancing drugs, just like steroids, sports competition will have a much healthier and fairer environment to participate in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports The use of steroids and performance enhancing drugs is a common trend that is currently fascinating athletes all over the world.   Athletes who are using these drugs are damaging the sport and harming their bodies at the same time.   Seeking a greater athletic physique and ability, athletes turned to the use of steroids.   Once the dangers and possible health risks arose, athletes then turned to performance enhancers.   Two specific supplements have taken the sports world by storm and now are being used by athletes of all ages.   They are androstenedione and creatine.   It took years until people began to understand how dangerous steroids really were. These performance enhancers, like androstenedione and creatine are going to produce the same results.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The use of performance enhancing supplements has long played a role in athletics, especially after the utilization of drug testing was introduced during the 1972 Olympics.

Crash as the Prejudice and Misjudging Essay

The movie, Crash, teaches us that many of us are prejudiced which may influence people on a daily basis. We are born into this world as good people, but just because we are good people; does not mean that we have not hurt someone using discrimination– prejudice and racism can lead to misjudge others. For example, a Hispanic man, with a shaved head and tattoos, is misjudged as a gang member. However, in reality, he is a loving father who works as a locksmith to support and devote his family. Or, a good cop who murders a young black man in self defense, against his good judgment, discards all evidence that links him to the crime. These are just some examples of the unpredictable events that take place. At the beginning of the movie, Jean Cabot’s (Sandra Bullock) car gets hijacked from two black men with guns. After her car is stolen, she feels both angry and afraid. Because of her fear, she tells her husband that the locksmith will come back and steal from them even though the locksmith is not going to steal anything. Furthermore, due to Jean Cabot’s fear, she finds out, herself, that she is irrationally misjudging the Hispanic locksmith in front of her husband and his co-workers. She has a similar sense of fear when she falls down the stairs in her home. While she is alone in her house, Jean asks her friends to pick up some medication for her because of a headache from anxiety. However, her friend refuses to do it because she is busy. After she hangs up the phone, she tumbles down the stairs. At this point, she is unable to find her friends or husband to take her to the hospital. Nevertheless, her Hispanic housemaid finds out that Jean has fallen down the stairs and takes her to the hospital (and end the takes, takes care of her). After that predicament, Jean is aware that the only person who really cares about her is her housemaid (whom Jean had prejudice feelings towards). This prejudice and misjudging depicted in Crash represents a pessimistic message about the realistics of racism. Crash is a movie that really gets us to look at our own behaviors by showing the hidden acts of racism and prejudice, which are present in our society (and even in ourselves today). But, some prejudice, such as stereotyping, is easily changeable. In the movie, an arrogant, racist cop, Officer Ryan (Matt Dillon), who was on the look out for some carjackers, physically molests an African American woman after pulling her and her husband over. However, the next day, he finds out that he has to save the same black woman (who was in the car accident), in which he has convinced himself that he has done nothing wrong. From these scenes, Crash is a great film that presents the soul of humanity. It says to us that we are only humans and that all people have a good and a bad side. It is a movie about first impressions and how they are not always correct. Although the problem with racial stereotypes shown in Crash have false or partly true ideals about certain groups (causing discrimination), language obstacles, and the abuse of power between them defeats it. Stereotyping races in this film causes discrimination among the characters which are represented in the different cultures of our society. For instance, in the movie Ferhad, an owner of a Persian store is afraid of his safety and has difficulty understanding English. His Arab appearance makes the owner of a gun shop think that he is a terrorist, so he refuges to sell a gun to him and tells him that â€Å"Osama, plan the jihad on your own time. † This example can also represent people’s misjudgment by only looking at one’s appearance and/or language. The movie, Crash, is both thought provoking and intense to us. Crash is the perfect example of how we, as a human race, deal with our lives, people and our own experiences. Physical characteristics and racial differences may be interpreted as two distinguishing traits that tell apart us. Throughout the movie, it made us think more about our behaviors toward different races and it allowed us to unite as one (and to not think about separation of the diversity of humans). The film represents both pessimistic messages about the reality of racism by demonstrating the separator, which exists between these groups and misjudgment of diversity groups. Yet, we learn that misjudging people will be vanished when we are turned to face desperate situations, which convince us that misjudging is not good idea and that we have to overcome it.

The Problem Of Sex Abuse Essay - 1519 Words

Mariana Popa was stabbed to death on October 29, 2013 six weeks pregnant. She was a sex worker and a mother of one. A recent law enforcement crackdown targeting sex workers led Mariana to work alone that night, rather than as usual with other women, to avoid arrest. She was also allegedly working late to pay a fine she had received for soliciting. Mariana’s tragedy is not uncommon. Sex workers are 400 times more likely to become a victim of homicide than the average worker. Current legislation regarding prostitution in the United States works directly against sex workers, the population these laws often claim to protect. The archaic and oftentimes nonsensical laws arose from the insidious problem of puritanical sex negativity within the United States. This systemic oppression of sex workers leads to high levels of violence and disease within their populations. A 2014 study by The Urban Institute explained that the unregulated and â€Å"lucrative underground commercial sex economy in eight large U.S. metropolitan areas brings in anywhere from $40 million annually to as much as nearly $300 million.† The study elaborated on the corruption of the illegal trade, explaining that within the massage parlors and brothels employing non-native women it was â€Å"unclear if workers were sex trafficking victims or working voluntarily.† Presently, there are an estimated 1 million prostitutes in the US, a probably conservative estimate because of the inherent anonymity. Additionally, sex workersShow MoreRelatedFrom the beginning of a child’s life, he/she holds the key to their own destiny. However, this is1000 Words   |  4 Pagesbeginning of a child’s life, he/she holds the key to their own destiny. However, this is no longer the case when child sexual abuse is brought in as a factor. 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